Same Sex Reproduction: Fatherless and Motherless Babies

Same Sex Reproduction: Fatherless and Motherless Babies

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The End of the Biological Binary

Over 2 decades ago I heard something about a baby mouse in Japan who was formed from the chromosomes of two healthy female mice. 🐭🐭 I was in my 20s, living in Tokyo and thought "cool!" ... then got on with my university work and my life.
Then last year in June a team in China announced they had been somewhat successful in doing the same, but with two mice dads!

I wanted to learn more. I'm gay and have considered adoption at some points in life, but this was more intriguing. The more I thought about it, the more I wanted to learn. So here we are after a little research. It's early days and there is more to discover, learn and adjust before my guy and I would be able to take advantage. Realistically, it likely won't happen to us, but nevertheless it's exciting and the hope it offers is immense for us in the LGBTQ+ community.

 🌈  Click the cards below for a more detailed look into these breakthroughs.  The mice fathers and mice babies running around were designed, illustrated and animated by me in Procreate, by hand.


🧪 The Science

Introduction: Why Same-Sex Mammals Can’t Naturally Make Babies

  • The Biological Two-Parent LimitationFor millions of years, mammalian reproduction has followed a non-negotiable process. While lower vertebrates like the Komodo dragon can naturally pull off parthenogenesis (reproducing asexually without sperm) by fusing a mature oocyte with its own cell to make a diploid baby, mammals are biologically locked into a two-parent, male-female system. This ensures that a paternal contribution is obligatory for any descendant, acting as a biological lock that prevents asexual reproduction. Without direct genetic or epigenetic intervention, artificial embryos created from same-sex mammalian parents lead to developmental failure early in the womb and die. 11  However, the work of pioneers like Tomohiro Kono 3,4,5 and Yanchang Wei 13 has begun to pick that lock. By bypassing these evolutionary barriers, they are proving that mammalian life is not a fixed binary, but a flexible "expression network" that science is finally learning to rewrite.
  • The Epigenetic Guards & Genomic Imprinting: The blockade isn't the DNA sequence itself, but how it's packaged. Genomic imprinting is an epigenetic process where chemical tags (like DNA methylation and histone modifications) turn certain genes "on" or "off" depending on whether they were inherited from the mother or the father. In mammals, these parent-specific epigenetic signatures act as an absolute developmental checkpoint. 2,3
  • The Epigenomic Problem: If you take the nucleus of a normal somatic cell or stem cell and stick it into an egg without resetting these marks, it has a high chance of miscarrying, failing to grow, or producing sick and deformed offspring. Resetting this genome-wide state is the "epigenomic correctness" bottleneck that germline engineers must solve. 5
  • The Parental Conflict (Kinship) Theory: This evolutionary asymmetry is driven by a genetic tug-of-war. Paternally expressed genes are aggressive resource-extractors, designed to maximize fetal and placental growth to secure the offspring's survival. Maternally expressed genes act as resource-conservers, pulling back the nutritional reins to keep the mother alive for future litters. 2,3
  • The Sapiens Mirror: In humans, mutations or duplications in these imprinted chromosomal regions lead to severe growth and developmental disorders. For example, Silver-Russell syndrome (associated with dwarfism and growth deficits) is tied to the downregulation of the paternal growth promoter IGF2 or maternal duplication of the KvDMR1 imprinting control region. Conversely, Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome is associated with cellular overgrowth. 2,3



かぐや姫の物語

How Japan Bypassed the Sperm Requirement (2004–2009)


In 2004, a pioneering team led by Tomohiro Kono at Tokyo University of Agriculture was able to create an itty bitty mammal with two biological mothers: A tiny baby mouse named Kaguya [かぐや].  4 They bypassed the sperm limitation by combining a mature egg with an immature, unmethylated egg from a newborn mouse. Basically they tricked an egg, chemically, into perceiving the second egg was a sperm, which in turn allowed it to begin fertilization.  4,5  Like ... what?! 


[The mouse was named after the "Moon-born princess" from a Japanese folk tale who was discovered as a baby inside a bamboo stalk - an appropriate tribute to a creature born of an unconventional,  sperm-less origin.]


In short, the egg was tricked by scientists altering and introducing a nonbinary "egg-sperm" (that's my silly terminology), and a baby was conceived. Kaguya survived to adulthood, mated as usual and gave birth to healthy offspring naturally, proving that bimaternal life is not only possible, but also fully functional. Kono's follow-up reviews confirmed that oocyte growth-dependent progression of maternal imprints is the primary roadblock that naturally prevents parthenogenesis in mammals. 8,9


In his 2010 study published in Human Reproduction, Kono and Kawahara's team revealed that bimaternal (BM) mice live up to one-third longer. 7,8 On average, these fatherless mice lived 841.5 days, compared to just 655.5 days for conventionally bred control mice. 10  The long-lived bimaternal pups were significantly smaller and lighter when they grew up, while showing enhanced immune systems coupled with a surprising increase in protective white blood cells called eosinophils. Turns out shutting off one particular set of genes on a particular chromosome is likely the cause of these benefits.


🧬 2 Dads Conceive

While bimaternal mice have been studied since 2004, the paternal frontier remained elusive in reproductive science, until China answered the call. Last year in June 2025, building on the gene-editing tools and "epigenetic reprogramming" logic used in previous studies, two teams rebalanced the DNA from two fathers so it could function like an egg, but in two distinct and opposite ways. This was an immense hurdle because sperm and eggs have vastly different epigenetic "memories."

As has been discussed, some lower vertebrates have the ability to spontaneously produce healthy bimaternal offspring. Spontaneous bipaternal offspring have never been observed in any vertebrate, especially not mammals. There was a long winding road to success, so the teams began with tackling a variety of gene edits. Because paternal sperm DNA is packed with aggressive growth-promoting genes, "two-dad" embryos naturally self-destruct in the womb.

Here is how the two teams solved this imprinting barrier using completely opposite tools:

1. The Beijing/Guangzhou Team (The Chinese Academy of Sciences) 13

  • Foundation: Permanent genetic alterations using CRISPR Cas9.

  • Method: Using cultured androgenetic haploid embryonic stem cells (ahESCs) derived from sperm (not live embryos). Because haploid cells only have one copy of DNA, they are incredibly easy to edit using CRISPR-Cas9.

  • Steps: They permanently sliced out DNA sequence segments, introduced frameshift mutations, and knocked out regulatory elements across 20 key imprinted regions.

    • They knocked out 18 regions to cure lethal overgrowth (babies too big to survive), swollen tongues (babies could not breathe|suckle), and fluid buildup in tissues (edema).

    • They knocked out a 19th region (the Blcap-Nnat locus) to fix unclosed eyelids and a severe suckling defect, allowing the following pups to nurse on their own.

    • They knocked out a 20th region (the Sfmbt2 microRNA cluster, deleting 72 miRNAs) to correct severe placental failures, enabling the next few embryos to grow their own working placentas.

  • Side Effects: Without intervention, the resulting pups’ male genes were overrepresented with nothing to keep them in check. This means they were born with noticeable physical defects at birth as listed above, and some simply didn’t make it out of the womb. Because the team permanently altered the genes, when the adult bi-paternal mice began making sperm via meiosis, the edited chromosomes shuffled randomly as usual, but with serious side effects. This meiotic lottery produced over 4,000 different genetic combinations in their sperm. Because a future embryo requires all 20 edits to work in perfect unison, the magic recipe was shattered, leaving these adult bi-paternal mice completely sterile. They also suffered from a shortened lifespan (60.1% of normal).

2. The Shanghai Team (Shanghai Jiao Tong University) 15

  • Foundation: Epigenetic procedure that allowed chemicals to attach to the genes instead of permanently altering them.

  • Method: They bypassed stem cells and permanent DNA deletions entirely. By surgically injecting two normal sperm heads (from C57BL/6 and CAST mouse strains to allow allele-specific targeting using natural genetic variations) directly into an enucleated (DNA-less) egg cell.

  • Steps: They co-injected CRISPR-based epigenetic editing tools (dCas9-Tet1 to erase methyl tags and dCpf1-Dnmt3 to write them). Without cutting a single piece of DNA, they chemically overlaid genetic maternal instructions onto seven critical imprinting control regions (ICRs): Igf2-H19, Dlk1-Dio3, Igf2r, Snrpn, Kcnq1ot1, Grb10, and Nespas.

  • Outcome: Because no physical genes were deleted, the father's genetic sequence remained 100% healthy and intact. When the two surviving Shanghai bi-paternal pups reached adulthood (out of hundreds), meiosis proceeded perfectly normally without any genetic shuffling errors. Both adult males were fully fertile, naturally mating with females and fathering healthy, normal offspring of their own.

  • So, they essentially took natural 2 sperm heads from a specific lineage of mouse which was close to ‘normal’. With the sperm heads, they introduced a modified form of CRISPR Cas9, which coats genes with particular chemical instructions on specific areas of DNA. This caused the sperm-egg and the natural sperm to both be tricked in different ways into a binary situation which caused fertilization to occur in a handful of oocytes. It is important to note that the success rate remains low, and the process is technically exhaustive. However, the Shanghai results were undeniable: the offspring were not only healthy but were themselves fertile and capable of having their own babies. This proved that with enough genetic "reprogramming," the requirement for a maternal genome could also be bypassed.



🧩 Societal Effects

🏳️‍🌈Hopes🏳️‍⚧️:

From Lab Mice to Queer Familes?

The sociopolitical implications of this research are profound, particularly for the LGBTQ+ community, of which I am a part. For cis and trans folks alike, this science suggests a future where biological relatedness is no longer dictated by traditional sex roles.

"Let’s be real—this isn’t about mice. It’s about vision. For gay couples, especially men, the idea of having genetically related children has long been a pipe dream outside of surrogacy and egg donation. This research pushes the needle toward a future where biological parenthood doesn’t require a mom and a dad, just a whole lot of science and the willingness to reimagine what family looks like."2

Despite the excitement, we must remain grounded. This is early-stage science performed in mice. Translating these results to humans would require overcoming massive technical and ethical hurdles, and currently, any such process would still require egg donors and surrogates to carry the pregnancy.

Beyond my community, what this means for people having to live with genetic disorders is another blessing entirely. The side effects, the errors and successes, the new found knowledge together form a bright light shining on the path to conquering some of the things that ail us.


I'd like to take a moment to acknowledge and honor the tiny lives affected by this research. I learned that not only were babies created that either died quickly, died a bit after birth and/or were subjected to awful experiences, but also the horrific fact that some of the mothers were actually killed while being studied. 

I have no easy answers and it's a knife's edge: damned if you do damned if you don't. It makes me wonder if 'hell' is actually a soul who did wrong being born into one of these situations (example: a helpless fetus with a large tongue who can't breathe for the first and last few days of its little life)... over and over again until a more powerful entity helps them out of it. By entity I could mean The Creator, God|dess, I could mean the indifferent Universe, I could mean a large human with more knowledge and power than the wisdom of how to wield it. 

The final, and following, card touches on the spirituality of Mouse Medicine | Mouse Magick and how cultures viewed mice around the world.

🐭 People of the Mouse Nation

I love the North American Indigenous view of “other-than-human persons”: wildlife/spirits/natural elements (Irving Hallowell, "Ojibwa Ontology, Behavior, and World View"). They each are part of a nation, each nation being autonomous and sovereign in their territories with their own laws and languages. All of which interact as social beings with moral agency and intent. As far as wildlife are concerned, this is how I would like to acknowledge them.

Mouse people are no exception. They are usually tiny, yet carry the heavy weight of spiritual significance. Scientifically, their bodies are built in ways that match their spiritual reputation. Continuous growing teeth mean they are able to gnaw through obstacles, flexible skeletons let them squeeze through tiny gaps, hyper-sensitive whiskers navigate pitch darkness, and a rapid metabolism keeps them moving with a quickness. Special species take this even further: The African Spiny Mouse (Acomys) can completely heal its skin without scarring, or the Grasshopper Mouse (Onychomys), who stands on its hind legs to howl at the night sky while eating poisonous scorpions.

In indigenous traditions across North, Central, and South America, the mouse is a brave underdog, a hero, and a quiet problem-solver. Plains stories tell of Jumping Mouse, who sacrificed her sight and smell to help other animals before being transformed into an Eagle. Other legends show mice sneaking past guards to steal fire for their shivering communities. It was also a mouse who bravely volunteered to go up high in the sky, away from the safety of the ground, avoided being burned as they ran up to an ensnared Sun... his small, sharp teeth gnawed through cosmic snares that were trapping the Sun, freed it and allowed the plants to grow once more. Another tiny mouse stood up to Buffalo and won, despite the enormous difference in size and strength between the two... only to end up too greedy and losing to Fox.

Across Africa and Asia, mice are viewed as messengers, fortune-bringers, and spiritual guides. In West Africa, the Baule people place field mice inside special wooden vessels so their movement of grain-sticks can reveal hidden truths from the spirits below. In Hindu traditions, the elephant-headed remover of obstacles Ganesha rides a mouse as his vāhana, showing how wisdom can master uncontrolled desire, uncontrolled thoughts.

Mouse people remind us that we are capable of overcoming our extremes by taking grasp of the reins, climbing on their backs and taking control of our selfishness and gluttony. Other times they offer wisdom and ask us to learn from them. Small and fast enough to find hidden ways forward quickly, to conquer brutes of great size and strength... while at the same time not giving up and persevering through hardships… sometimes slowing down and patiently gnawing their way through a barrier, bite by bite, freeing the sun.

📚Primary Source List

  1. Jackson, Justin. "Mice born of two dads reveal hidden details of mammalian reproduction." Phys.org, June 25, 2025.

    • URL: Phys.org Article

    • Summary: This news report describes a massive success where scientists in Shanghai created healthy, adult mice using the DNA of two fathers. By using CRISPR to edit seven key chemical areas on the sperm DNA, the resulting adult male mice grew normally and were fully fertile

  2. Johnson, Michael. "Gay Dads of the Lab World." ThePinkTimes.com July 1, 2025. Updated Jul 22, 2026.

    • URL: The Pink Times

    • Summary: This article discusses the social impact of the same-sex mouse studies for queer folks. It highlights how these genetic breakthroughs could eventually make it possible for queer or same-sex couples to have children that share both parents' DNA, offering hopes for the future of LGBTQ+ families.

  3. Kono, Tomohiro et. al. "Birth of parthenogenetic mice that can develop to adulthood." Nature 428, no. 6985 (April 22): 860–864.

    • URL: Nature 2004 Paper

    • Summary: This is the historic study that announced the birth of Kaguya, the first adult-surviving mouse born without any father. The researchers achieved this by combining egg cells and deleting a specific gene area to trick the embryo into growing.

  4. Kono, Tomohiro. “Genetic modification for bimaternal embryo development”. Reproduction Fertility and Development 21, 31–36.

    • URL: https://doi.org/10.1071/RD08213

    • Summary: Review paper by the scientist who created Kaguya. It explains the biology behind why mammalian egg cells cannot naturally develop into embryos on their own and details the exact genetic edits needed to bypass this barrier.

  5. Kawahara Manabu, Kono Tomohiro. “Longevity in mice without a father”, Human Reproduction, Volume 25, Issue 2, February 2010, Pages 457–461

    • URL: Longevity Study 2010

    • Summary: Another study by Dr Kono, with Dr Kwahara, focusing on longevity in mice having to do with genes from mothers. Genetics derived from mothers causes mice to live longer, have higher resistance to disease with more protective cells throughout the body, and a sleek lightweight body morphology.

  6. Normile, Dennis. "Fatherless mice live longer." Science.org, December 2, 2009.

    • URL: Science.Org Article

    • Summary: This article reports on the discovery by Kono et. al. that female mice made from two mothers and no father live about 30% longer than wild type mice. It suggests that genes from the father's sperm might actually have a negative effect on how long mammals live and how strong their immune systems are.

  7. Odom, Laura. "You (Don't) Got Male: Parthenogenesis and its Applications in Biomedical Research." Lions Talk Science, September 4, 2024.

    • URL: Lions Talk Science Article

    • Summary: A Science Communication Blog by the Graduate Students of Penn State College of Medicine. Some animals, like the Komodo Dragon, can have babies without needing a father. While mammals cannot do this naturally because of chemical tags on their DNA, scientists have used gene editing to create "fatherless" mice in the lab, which might help us make better stem cells for medicine.

  8. Scimex. 2025. "The first mouse with 2 dads to survive to adulthood." Scimex: The Science Media Exchange, January 28, 2025.

    • URL: Scimex Media Release

    • Summary: This is a science media announcement that shares the news of the Chinese Academy of Sciences' successful creation of the first-ever adult mice born from two male parents.

  9. Wikipedia contributors. "Genomic imprinting." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Last modified June 8, 2026.

    • URL: Genomic Imprinting Wikipedia

    • Summary: This page explains genomic imprinting, which is when certain genes are turned on or off depending on whether they came from the mother or the father. It talks about how this works through chemical changes in the cell, and how mistakes in this process can cause growth and developmental disorders in humans.

  10. Wikipedia contributors. "Kaguya (mouse)." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Last modified June 17, 2026.

    • URL: Kaguya Mouse Wikipedia

    • Summary: This article tells the story of Kaguya, the first mouse created in a lab using the DNA of two mothers and no father. It details how the scientists made Kaguya, the health differences between her and normal mice, and how she was eventually able to have her own babies naturally. 

  11. Zhi-Kun Li et. al. "Generation of Bimaternal and Bipaternal Mice from Hypomethylated Haploid ESCs with Imprinting Region Deletions." Cell Stem Cell 23, no. 5 (November 1): 665–676.

    • URL: Cell Stem Cell 2018 Paper

    • Summary: This study shows how researchers used special stem cells that naturally lose their chemical imprints in the lab. By deleting three key gene areas in female stem cells, they made healthy mice with two mothers, and by deleting seven areas in male stem cells, they made the first mice with two fathers (though the two-father mice died shortly after birth).

  12. Zhi-kun Li et. al. "Adult bi-paternal offspring generated through direct modification of imprinted genes in mammals." Cell Stem Cell 32 (January 28).

    • URL: Cell Stem Cell 2025 Paper

    • Summary: Study from China explains how scientists successfully made mice with two fathers survive all the way to adulthood. By making 20 different genetic changes in male stem cells, they fixed severe growth defects, allowed the pups to nurse, and even let them develop healthy, working placentas.

  13. Wei Yanchan et. al. "Fertile androgenetic mice generated by targeted epigenetic editing of imprinting control regions" Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 122 (27) e2425307122, (2025).

    • URL: PNAS Shanghai Paper 2025

    • Summary: A paper in PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences) by Yanchan Wei et. al. in which they explain how they avoided damaging and permanently altering male DNA in sperm (causing sterility), and instead used a modified CRISPR to cover the DNA to make it look/feel like an oocyte, preserving the DNA instead.


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